Rise of Tamil Dynasties: The Sangam Age

 THE SANGAM AGE

• The period between the third century BC to third century AD in South India (the areas of modern Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) is known as Sangam Period.
•  It has been named after the Sangam academies held during the period of three great dynasties of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. It flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
• At the Sangams, eminent scholars assembled and functioned as the board of censors and the literary works were compiled in the form of anthologies.

• These literary works were the earliest specimens of Dravidian literature. According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam.

-Mythologically the first Sangam is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by Gods and legendary sages. No literary work of this Sangam is available.

- The second Sangam was held at Kapatapuram and the only text during this Sangam that survived was Tolkappiyam.

- The third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of the Tamil literary works have survived and are a useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.

• The earliest script that the Tamils used was the Brahmi script. It was only from the late ancient and early period, that they started evolving a new angular script, called the Grantha script, from which the modern Tamil is derived. The Sangam literature was finally compiled in its present form in 300-600 AD.

RISE OF TAMIL DYNASTIES

Down south were three ancient Tamil dynasties- the Cheras (on the west), the Cholas (on the east) and the Pandyas (in the south)-recurrently involved in war- fare to attain regional supremacy. The Greek and the Ashokan sources mention them as lying at the outskirts of the Mauryan Empire. A corpus of ancient Tamil literature, known as Sangam literature, including Tolkappiyam, a manual of Tamil grammar by Tolkappiyar, provides much useful information about their social life from 300 BCE to 200 CE. Also, there is a clear evidence of intervention by Aryan traditions from the north into a predominantly indigenous Dravidian culture in transition.

Findings of Roman gold coins in numerous sites attest to extensive south In- dian links with the outside world. Like Pataliputra in the northeast and Taxila in the northwest, Madurai, in modern Tamil Nadu, was the centre of intellectual and literary activities. A series of poets and bards, assembled there under royal patron- age, composed anthologies of poems, of which, a few survived. It is during this pe- riod that South Asia was criss-crossed by overland trade routes, which facilitated the travels of many people, including Buddhist and Jain missionaries, and opened the scope of a synthesis of many cultures.

 SANGAM  AGE

Academics esteem the Sangam period as the 'classical age' and 'Golden Age' of the Tamils, and equated the same with that of the Greece and Rome of ancient times. Apart from the corpus of Sangam literature, the archaeological findings from vari- ous sites throw light on different aspects of the political, social, economic, religious and cultural life of the Sangam Age people. Though the literal meaning of 'Sangam' is 'amalgamation', the transliteral meaning of it in English would be a college or an academy where learned people meet that is held under the benefaction of the Pandyan kings, who were great lovers of literature and arts. The Sangam was, in fact , a voluntary organization of versifiers who produced supreme literary works.

 Although the precise date of the Sangam literature is contested, the legalization of the literary sources with recent archeo-cultural research qualifies the Sangam Age in the sequential line of 600 years, i.e., from c. 300 BCE to 300 CE.

The validated and conventional records of Iraiyanar Akapporul remark that there were three Sangams held, which sustained for 9990 years, and the conflu- ence was estimably endorsed by 8598 scholars. Sage Agastyar was the founding father. Around 197 Pandyan kings took upon themselves to finance and uphold these gatherings of scholars. The capital city of the Pandyas upheld all the three Sangams. The capital was under constant shift due to incumbent reasons. Old Madurai became the center of the initial confluence, Sangam; and Kapatapuram became the site for the second gathering. Ancient Southern India faced successive deluges, which washed away the cultural confluence, and for that same reason the third Sangam was sited in modern Madurai.

The most enigmatic scholarly gathering was the third Sangam because we do not have archaeological or cultural data or inferences from other sources to locate the chronological development. The era in which Tholkappiar thrived is alleged to be in the second Sangam era, whereas the third Sangam accords with the In- do-Roman trade with the modernization Imperial Rome. Contemporary Greek writers have produced records to validate the data. The same is also attested by the Sangam literature. The third Sangam observed the production of numerous present works.

POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN SANGAM AGE

The Sangam anthologies, in their totality, counterbalance and present the history of the formation of state-system in Southern India. Sangam literature propounds a historical machinery where how the tribes, though diminishing, established units by the side of the king. The collection infers that the state was administrated and managed by legislative forms, checks and balances aspiring for constancy. The Sangam scripts are quite explicit when it comes to discuss kings and king-ship. The scripts specify that of the three muventars (three crowned monarch):

 1. the Cholas controlled the fully-irrigated fertile Kaveri basin with their capital at Uraiyur, 

2. the Pandyas exercised their authority over the pastoral and coastal parts with the capital at Madurai,

3. and the Cheras had ruled over the hilly country in the west with Vanji (Karur) as the capital.

The Sangam scripts do not stop there. They go into the details of the genealogy by selecting the most renowned:

1. The Chola kings Ilanjetchenni, his son Karikala and his two sons,

2. The Pandyan kings, such Ariyapadaikadantha Nedunjeliyan, as Muthukudumi Peruvaludi, 3. and Chera kings like Imayararamban Nedumceralatan, Cheran Senguttu- van and Mantaran Cheral Irumporai are worth mentioning.

Absolute and totalitarian monarchy was the singular ruling apparatus in the kingdoms. The king, a 'ventan', was spearheaded the society and government along with highly acclaimed and worshipped social events, which rendered cul- tural importance to the festival of Indra, inaugurations of dance routines, etc. The king was associated with divine characteristics. He was equated with gods and assumed important titles at the time of coronation. The ancient Tamils considered the drum, the sceptre and the white umbrella as the three-great insignia of his office.

The kingship was overseen by the rule of primogeniture, where it was de- scended by heredity from father to the son. The king was accountable for uphold- ing the law and order in the state. He also looked after the welfare of his subjects, worked hard for their good and recurrently toured the country to put things in order. The king also had recourse to advisers in the course of his administration. The literature recurrently mentions them as 'surram,' which literally means the men who always surrounded the king giving him advice whenever needed. The kings were assisted by their subordinate chieftains. They were divided into two- velir and non-velir.

ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS IN SANGAM AGE

Administrative power was vested by a system of checks and balances in the coun- cils through the process of Silappadikaram that denotes two types of assemblies-

1. Amperinkulu

2. Enperayam

                     

            The Aimperinkulu was a five member minister council. The Enperayam was an eight-member minister council, including civil officers. These two distinct bodies worked more as advisors to the state who had the king's good ears. They also worked in the judiciary.

Despite of massive magnificence devoted to the king, the local units of the state always enjoyed a certain degree of sovereignty in south India from the earli- est times. The resident unit, however small and in whatever corner it was located, was managed by a local assembly. The Sangam termed them as the 'avai' and the 'manram'. Such assembly is commonly referred to as arankuravaiyam, which were known for its just decision. These can be understood to be the forerunner of our modern panchayat.

Conservation of large standing army by the state and the overlords was an- other key feature of the Sangam Age. Wars were fought to defend and to extend territories or to save neighbouring kingdoms from tyrannous despots. Sometimes the wars occurred for matrimonial alliances. Such was the psychological frame maintained by the kings, budding soldiers were all over the country to join the roval force in times of need. Even kings trained themselves in such activities. The Late maintained all the four kinds of armies mentioned in Sangam literature-the chariot, the elephant, the cavalry and the infantry. There are references to the navy of the Chera that guarded the sea port so well that other ships could not enter the region. The Sangam texts also mention about the army camp on the battle field. The king's camp was well-made, and even in camp he slept under his white umbrella and many soldiers slept around him mostly without their swords. The camps of ordinary soldiers were generally built with the sugarcane leaves on the sides and cut paddy crop on the top with paddy hanging from it. Generals and officers of high rank were accompanied by their wives on the campaign and stayed in the special camps built for the officers. The king recurrently visited the camp of soldiers and officers to enquire about their welfare. He did so even in the night and in pouring rain.

Tamil people had a great respect for the warrior and particularly the hero who died in the battle field. Suffering a back-wound was considered as highly disreputable as there are instances of kings who died fasting because they had suffered such a wound in battle. The hero stones (virakals) were erected to commemorate heroes who died in war. There was the provision for the prison which indicate the coercive machinery of the state.

Sangam polity was influenced by the north Indian political ideas and institu- sons in many aspects. Many rulers sought their origin and association with deities Bike Siva, Vishnu and ancient sages. Many kings are said to have participated in the Mahabharata war, like their north Indian counterparts. The rulers of Sangam Age were also the patrons of art, literature and performed yajnas (sacrifices).

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN SANGAM AGE

The surplus production in agriculture, specialized craft production and expansion of trade resulted in the general prosperity of people during the Sangam Age. The text, Maduraikkanji of Maruthanus refers to the agriculture and trade as the main forces of economic development. keenness people showed in cultivation could also be gauged by the importance and Agriculture was the prime source of revenue for the state. The importance and interest they showed for cattle rearing. The Sangam poems recurrently refer to milk and milk-products, such as curd, butter, ghee and butter milk. Silappadikaram als relates the happiness and prosperity of the people to the agriculture. The paddy and sugarcane were the two important crops cultivated in a large quantity. Besides these chief crops, other varieties of crops and fruits included gram, beans, roots, like Valli (a kind of sweet potato), jack-fruit, mango, plantain, coconut, saffron, pepper, turmeric, etc.

In Sangam Age, the kings took plenty of measures for the development of agriculture. The Karikala Chola dug tanks for irrigation, and embankment of river Kaveri proved to be very useful for agriculture is well-known. Tank irriga- tion helped in feeding agriculture as mentioned in many poems. For example, Maduraikkanji mentions 'rivers filling the tanks as they run towards the eastern ocean.' It is evident from the sources that the prosperity of the king depended on the prosperity of the land.

The Sangam texts also talks about various kinds of craftsmen, including goldsmith, blacksmith, coppersmith, potter, sculptor, painter and the weaver. Manimekalai has a mention of collaboration of architects from Maharashtra, blacksmiths from Malwa, carpenters from Greece and Rome, and jewellers from Magadha with their Tamil counterparts. The occupation or profession was erally hereditary or handed down from father to the son. Conferring to Silap- padikaram, men of different career lived in different streets. This led to progress in various trades and industries, and also resulted in making these men skilled in their art. gen-

Construction activities reached a high level during this period. This can be ob- served in the use of boats with face of the horse, elephant and lion mentioned by Silappadikaram. Moreover, the thriving trading activities with the Middle East and beyond could have been facilitated only with strong maritime activities, including construction of moats, bridges, drainage, lighthouse, etc.

The artists received much appreciation for all types of artifices. Paripadal men- tions the existence of a art museum in Madura (Madurai) and the sale of pictures is mentioned by Silappadikaram. The walls of houses, roofs, dress, bed-spreads, curtains and many other articles of day-to-day use were decorated and were in great demand.

Weaving as an art form was more popular not only among the Tamils but among the foreigners. Garments with interlaced floral designs are recur- also rently mentioned in Sangam literature. Dresses were woven not only from cot- ton, silk and wool but also from rat's hair, and colouring yarn was known. The Indian silk, for its fineness, was in great demand by the Roman merchants. However, the weaving industry was a domestic industry in which all the mem- bers of the family, especially women, took part.

The cobblers, potters and other craftsmen were instrumental to the industrial development. But one of the most noteworthy facts in this regard is the introduc- tion of Greek sculpture and other foreign workmanship into south India during this period. Literary works, such Nedunalvadai, Mullaippattu and Padiruppattu refer to the beautiful lamps made by the foreigners, Roman pots and wine jars, etc. The classical Greek and Roman influence in the contemporary period can also be seen in the sculptures of Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh) and Ceylon.

The Periplus of Erythrean Sea and other accounts of foreigners, such as those of Pliny, Ptolemy, Strabo and Petronius mention various ports and the articles traded during the period. The archaeological excavations at various sites have also yielded the artefacts confirming to the trading relations between the Tamil regions and other countries. The discovery of coin hoards at many places also demon- strates this fact.

To support the historical inferences, historians find ample assumptions from the data that the Sangam scripts reveals of the ports: 

1. Musiri, Puhar (Kaveripattinam) and Korkai, the three great ports of the three great rulers of the times.

2. Periplus, on the other hand, refers to the ports of Tondi, Musiri and Com- ari (Cape Comorin/Kanyakumari), Colchi (Korkai), Poduke (Arikamedu) and Sopatma.

Conferring to Periplus, there were three types of navigations in use in south India:

1. Small coasting vessels, 

2. Large coasting vessels and

3. Ocean-going liners. There is also the mention of large vessels called Col- andia sailing from the Tamil Coast to the Ganges.

Export business to Rome made southern India prosper more than any other kingdoms, having the return values mostly in gold and abundance of middle east- emn goods. Exotic animals, including tigers, peacocks were exported to Rome. The principal animal products of export included ivory and pearl. Plant products, like ar- aromatics and spices (pepper, ginger, cardamom, cloves, nutmegs, etc.), coconut, plantain, jaggery, teak wood, sandal wood, cotton cloth of special variety called garu (from Uraiyur) constituted the major bulk of the exports. Mineral products pro- like diamonds, beryl, steel, semiprecious stones, etc., were also exported from south India. Roman imports consisted coins, coral, wine, lead, tin and jewellery. This poses the maritime contacts between the two regions. There were settlements of the foreign traders in many towns.

However, it was not only the external trade, which added to the prosperity of the Tamils but also internal trade that flourished in the region with local networks of trade connecting different urban centres. Silappadikaram refers to the bazaar (market) streets of Puhar, while Maduraikkanji describes the market at Madurai, the Pandyan capital.

Tamil territories also witnessed the growth of urban centres in the inland re- gions. The prominent among these were Madurai, Karur, Perur, Kodumanal, Urai- yur, Kanchipuram and others. While Korkai on the east coast was celebrated for pearl fishing, Kodumanal in the central part was known for its beryl. However, the trade was not confined to the cities alone. The farthest villages were also linked with the trading system. The carts were the significant mode of transport for in- land trade. These were in use for either carrying goods or people including the traders.

The trade was mostly conducted through barter. The geographical diversity of the Tamil region demanded the exchange of goods/products between the different regions. However, the use of coins for trading purpose cannot be ruled out even in the context of internal trade.

Royal revenue was largely dependent on trade. To foster economic growth, transit taxes were collected from merchants who moved from one place to another. Spoils of war further added to the royal income. But the income from agriculture provided the real foundation of war and political set-up. However, the share of agricultural harvest claimed and collected by the king is not specified.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

According to Tolkappiyam, the society in the Sangam Age was based on the five-fold dassification of the land (thinai)- 

1. the hill (kurinji),

2. the forest/pastoral (mullai), 

3. the agricultural (marutham), 

4. the wasteland (palai) the coastal (neithal)

Each of the thinais were named after a flower, which was the characteristic of that landscape. People of various types inhabited these various classified lands, and evolved certain fixed customs and ways of life as a result of their interaction with respective environments.

The ecological variations governed their occupations, such as hunting, cultivation, pastoralism, plunder, fishing, diving, sailing, etc. In the beginning, these societies had relatively less population and social classes were unknown.

The resultant homogeneity among the people of each region enabled to move freely among regions and rulers. The only classification Tamil society was aware of at this time was that of the arivar, ulavar, etc., based on their occupation, such as the soldiers, hunters, shepherds, ploughmen,fishermen, etc. The existence of numerous tribes and chieftains was seen in the later half of the Sangam Age. It is interesting to note that though the Varna system was brought in from north by the immigrating brahmanas (100 CE), it did not include Kshatri- yas as in the north. Only the Brahmins were the dvijas (twice born) who qualified for the sacred thread. References to the slaves known as adimai (one who lived at feet of another) also find mention in the literature of this period. Possibly, the pris- oners of war were reduced to slavery. There also existed slave markets.

The women, unlike north, enjoyed certain freedom and had the privilege to roam around the town freely, to play on the seashore and river beds, and to join the temple festivals as depicted in Sangam poems, such as Kalittogai. However, the status of women was one of subordination to men. This is truly reflected in Kuruntogai, where the wife was expected to love the husband not for his qualities, but because of the fact that he is her husband. There are references of women be- ing educated and some of them being poetesses, however, this cannot be applied for all. They did not enjoy property rights, but were treated with considerations. Maintaining widowhood or performed sati were the norms for women, which was considered almost divine. Marriage was a sacrament/ritual, and not a contract. Tolkappiyam refers to eight forms of marriage of which the most common was the Brahma marriage. However, references to wooing or even elopements, followed by conventional marriage also finds mention in the texts. Prostitution was prevalent in society as a recognized institution, though the prostitutes were taken to be the intruders in peaceful family life. They figure prominently in the poems and enjoy a social standing. There had been distinct sense of dressing for men and women. The higher class used dress of fine muslin and silk. Except for the ruling class, men generally wore just two pieces of cloth-one below the waist and another adorning the head like a turban. Women used cloth only to cover below the waist. The tribal women used leaves and barks to cover themselves.

The people in general were largely concerned with the physical beauty and were fond of using aromatic oil, coloured powders and paints. Sandal paste was heavily applied on the chests of men. Silappadikaram gives vivid details of amusements enjoyed by the people. Women had pictures drawn on their bodies in coloured pat- terns and had their eyelids painted with a black pigment. The jewellery were worn round the neck and on arms and legs by both, the men and women. The overlords and nobles wore heavy armlets and anklets while the ordinary women wore various other kinds of jewels.

The financially viable class used ornaments of gold and precious stones for decoration, whereas the poor class used bracelets made of conch-shell and neck- laces made of coloured beads. Silappadikaram refers to a ritual which involved hot bath in water - where the water is heated with 5 kinds of seeds, 10 kinds of astringents and 32 kinds of scented plants, it also involved drying of the hair over smoke of akhil and the parting of it into 5 parts for dressing. Men also grew long hair braided into a knot which was sometimes surrounded by a string of beads. Tamils were very much fond of flowers - women used to decorate their hair with flowers, such as water lily as described by Kuruntogai. House were built either with mud or bricks depending on the owner's af- fordability. There were category of houses, which were built of suduman, which literally means burnt mud. The people belonging to lower strata lived in thatched houses, which were covered with grass or leaves of the coconut or palmyra, Win dows were ususally small and were constructed in the form of deer's eye. There is the reference of well-constructed storeyed houses of the rich people, which had goparams for the entrance and iron gates with red paint to prevent from rusting. According to Silappadikaram, these houses were lighted with beautiful artistic lamps often from Greece and Rome. The fuel for such lamps consisted of oil ex tracted from fish.

With regard to food habits, non-vegetarianism was the main food type, though Brahmin ascetics were abided by the vegetarian food. The food was very plain and consisted of rice, milk, butter, ghee and honey. Otherwise, meat and liquor were freely used. Curd was in popular use. Kuruntogai refers to various kinds of sweets made with curd, jaggery, puffed rice, milk and ghee. Besides these, spicing of cur- ry and rice is also referred to in the Sangam texts. The tradition of feeding guests was a common custom Learned dignitaries were always considered as honoured guests, and red rice fried in ghee was given to them as a token of love and respect. Plentiful piers and plays as the sources of entertainment included dances, musical programmes, religious commemorations, bull-fights, cock-fight, hunting, dice, wrestling, boxing, acrobatics, etc. Women partook in the religious dances, playing the dice and varippanthu or cloth ball. Playing in swings made of Palmyra fibes was common among girls. Narrinai gives an account of the games played with decorated dolls, whereas Kuruntogai mentions about children playing with toy-cart and with the sand houses made by them on the sea coasts.

Sangam scripts discuss various styles of dances. According to Silappadikaram, there were 11 kinds of dances, which were divided into 7 groups. There are refer- ences to the different kinds of musical instruments, such as the drums, flute and yal old in yards at Puhar and Madurai. The performing arts also included the art of drama, which were mostly religious in character, but sometimes these were enacted to commemorate great event or persons. Poets and poetic culture and the system of wandering troubadours going from place to place with their musical instruments singing the glory of either a person or a great event commanded great popularity in the Sangam Age. Initially, the bard (porunar) began as an individual to whip up the martial spirit of the soldiers engaged in war and to sing of their victory when the battle was won.

As far as religious beliefs and customs are concerned, the literary sources men- tion about the co-existence of various faiths like Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism in the Tamil region during this period. Buddhism and Jainism entered the region in the first centuries of the Christian era. The sects, such as Saivism and Vaishnavism were also well-known religions during the period.

Sangam scripts minutely documents the Vedic intermixing and Vedic accept- ance of an advanced culture in Southern India. Silappadikaram and Tolkappiyam refer to the six brahmanic duties. Brahmanical rites and ceremonies were very much in practice. The Pandyan king is described as 'having various sacrificial halls' in many Sangam poems. The four important deities as mentioned by Tolkappiyam were-

1. Murugan, 

2. Tirumal,

3. Vendan (Indra) 

4. Varunan.

Indra was worshipped as the rain god and a festival in his honour was cele- brated every year. In Pattinappalai, worship of Muruga is mentioned. Muruga is the son of Siva. Besides these deities, Lakshmi (the goddess of prosperity), Mayon (later Vishnu) as guardian of the forest region, Baladeva, Kaman (the god of love), moon-god, sea-god and other divinities were also worshipped.

the The people also had faith in ghosts and spirits. There is the mention of the 'bhu- ta' in Silappadikaram. Many believed in demons residing on trees, battle-fields and burning ghats 'ingestion blood and scouring their hair with hands soaked in blood.' Minor deities, like guardian deities of Madura and Puhar are also referred to in the text. The people also believed in the village gods, totemic symbols and bloody sacrifices to mollify ferocious deities. Animism is clearly reflected in their tradition of worshipping the deities believed to be residing in trees, streams and on hill tops. The dead heroes, satis and other martyrs were also defied.

The emergence of Buddhism and Jainism in the first centuries of the Christian era influenced the philosophical thoughts of the Tamils in the Sangam Age. Many scholars have expressed their views that the two great epics of the period, Silap- padikaram was Jain and Manimekalai had Buddhist influence. Manimekalai refers to the practice of Saivism in Tamil regions. Though Siva as a deity is not mentioned in other texts, he is referred to by his attributes like the ancient first Lord', 'the Lord with the blue beautiful throat' and 'the god under the banyan tree. So, in ear- ly times both Saivism and Vaishnavism seem to have existed in the Tamil region only in principle and not by name. Though Tolkappiyam refers to the god Muruga (son of Siva) and Mayon (earlier name of Vishnu), there is no clear reference to Saivism and Vaishnavism. Probably, the transition of these cults to these

two different sects was taking place during the Sangam Age. The people of Sangam era believed in dreams and influ- ence of planets on human life. Certain ominous signs were popularly observed. For example, the cawing of crow was considered as an omen of the coming guest, who was ea- gerly awaited. Kuruntogai mentions that the crow was con- sidered a good harbinger and was fed with rice and ghee. Sneezing was held inauspicious.

The sophisticated aspect of the Sangam religion was the worship of gods and goddesses in temples. Temple dedicat- ed to Siva, Muruga, Baladeva, Vishnu, Kaman and moon-god are clearly mentioned in various Sangam texts. Manimekalai refers to a very big brick called Cakravahakottam. However, in many cases, as till today, the deities were often set up under trees. The method of worship generally consisted of dancing and offering flowers, rice and meat to the gods. Silappadikar- am mentions about the stone images of gods. The Tamils of Sangam Age believed in the ritual on occasions of birth and death. Dead were disposed either by cremation, burial or by being left in open to vultures or jackals. Burning grounds are mentioned in Manimekalai.

Reiterating the gist of the whole discussion about the Sangam Age it appears that the period witnessed the conception of state for the first time in south India, though it was still in the process of crystallization. We also notice social inequalities with the dominance of the Brahmanas. But the acute class distinction, which appeared in later times, was lacking in Sangam Age. Cultivation of various crops was the back- bone of Sangam economy. The diversified craft production leading to trading activi- ties, especially trade relations with the Mediterranean World enriched their economy. The foreign elements also influenced the socio-economic and cultural life of people. The Sangam Age truly reflects the complex nature of the various religious beliefs and customs practised during the period including that of animism and idol worship. Many of the traditions of the age survived and continued in the later periods.

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