Religious Literature : What is Religious Literature of India

What is Religious Literature:India is a land with a rich and diverse religious heritage, and its religious literature reflects the depth of its spiritual traditions. Some of the most significant religious literature from India includes:

Vedic Literature: The entire Vedic literature is broadly divided into Shruti (that which has been 'heard') literature and smriti (that which has been 'remembered') literature. Shruti literature consists of the four Vedas, Samhitas, Brahmana texts, Aranyakas and Upanishads whereas the smriti literature includes the Vedangas, Puranas, epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata), Dharmashastras and Nitishastra.

Shruti Literature:

Veda:The word 'veda' is derived from the root 'vid' which means to know. It is applied to a branch of literature which is declared to be sacred knowledge or divine revelation, that is, Shruti. Samhitas are collections of hymns sung in the praise of various gods. They are the most essential part of the Vedic literature. They are four in number-Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda Samhitas.

Rig Veda:The Rigveda is also known as knowledge of the hymns of writer Praise. It consists of a collection of 1,028 poems grouped into 10 'circles' (mandalas). 1017 hymns (suktas) and supplemented by 11 other called valakhilyas. It is divided into ten books or mandalas. The Rig Veda is the oldest and as well as the most important of all the Samhitas. Earliest mandalas, i.e., from book II to VII are called 'family books' as they are ascribed to particular families of sages or rishis. In mandal III, which was composed by Vishvamitra, we find the famous Gayatri mantra, addressed to the solar deity Savitri. The term 'Harirupiya' (resembling Harappa) finds mention in mandala VI, and the famous 'Battle of Ten Kings' is described in mandala VII. Book IX is dedicated to soma. Books I and X are later additions and the latter contains the famous Purusha sukta hymn, explaining the division of society into four varnas. The Rigvedic priest is known as Hotri (the invoker). Recently, the Rigveda has been included by the UNESCO in the list of World Human Literature.

Sam Veda: The Sama Veda is the Knowledge of the Melodies (the name derived from saman, meaning a song or melody) consists of 1810 stanzas (except 75) taken from the Rig Veda. They were set to tune for the purpose of chanting by the udgatri priests at the soma sacrifice. It is called the book of chants, and the origins of Indian music are traced to it.

Yajur Veda :The Yajur Veda is the Knowledge of the Sacrificial formulae consists of various mantras (hymns) for the purpose of recitation and rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice. It is primarily a guide for the use of the adhvaryu priest who performed the ritual. The two royal ceremonies of rajasuya and vajapeya are mentioned for the first time in this Veda. In contrast to the first two which are in verse entirely, this one is in both verse and prose. It is divided into two parts-Krishna and Shukla.

Atharva Veda  : The Atharva Veda is the knowledge of magic formule (Veda of the atharvans or the knowledge of magic formulas) contains charms and spells in verse to ward off evils and diseases. Believed to be the work of non-Aryans, its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans. It is divided into two parts- Paippalada and Saunaka.

Brahmanas are treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony. Each Veda has its own Brahmana text/texts attached to it. Their subject matter is ritual and the language is prose. In short, they deal with the science of sacrifice. The important Brahmanas are-Aitareya, Kausitaki, Tandyamaha Brahmana, Jaiminiya, Taittiriya, Satapatha and Gopatha Brahmanas. Tandyamaha Brahmana, is one of the oldest, and contains many legends, and includes the Vratyastoma, a cere- mony through which people of non-Aryan stock could be admitted into the Aryan fold. But the most important as well as the most voluminous of all the Brahmanas is the Satapatha Brahmana. It provides us information about not only sacrifices and ceremonies but also theology, philosophy, manners and cus- toms of the later Vedic period.

Aranyakas are called the forest books as they were composed mainly by hermits living in the forests for their pupils. These texts deal with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy. The Aranyakas contain transitional material between the my- thology and ritual of the Samhitas and Brahmanas on the one hand, and the philosoph- ical speculations of the Upanishads on the other.

 Upanishads: These are philosophical texts that explore the nature of reality, the self, and the ultimate truth. They are considered the culmination of Vedic thought and are closely associated with Hindu philosophy.

Upanishad, though literally means 'to sit around gurus/teachers', is   understood as establishing connections and equivalences between things. The upanishadic thoughts emphasize upon the attainment of the ultimate knowledge. Upanishad that imparted knowledge was not the ordinary one; it was all-encom- passing which was the key to liberation from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. Such a knowledge could only be imparted to deserving disciples as it was difficult to explain and comprehend. It could only be revealed through debate and discus- sions, using devices like stories and images among its seekers.Of 108 Upanishads, only 12 are very important. They are: Aitareya, Kausitaki, Chandogya, Kena, Taittiriya, Katha, Svetasvatara, Brihadaranyaka (oldest), Isa, Mundaka, Prasna and Mandukya.

Upanishadic thoughts mainly revolve around the two fundamental concepts of Brahma and Atman. The Sanskrit term 'Brahma' comes from the root 'brih' which means to be strong and firm, and something that grants prosperity. It is in fact, the ultimate, imperishable reality pervading the universe. The term 'Atman' is the ultimate reality of the individual, i.e., the imperishable self. The reference of the term 'maya' or illusion (Shvetashvatara Upanishad) is defined in negative terms. It occurs in the human mind because of 'avidya' or ignorance, i.e., inability to realize oneness with Brahma which is the creative power of 'Ishwar' or God. Some of the Upanishads explain the doctrine of transmigration (freedom from a cycle of death and rebirth) by asserting that death and rebirth, which are connected with 'avidya' could be averted through attainment of ultimate knowledge. Hence, the objective of upanishadic thought is the realization of Brahma and liberation the cycle of death and rebirth (samsara) could only be achieved through knowledge or gyana.

Excerpts from Upanishads

Tattiriya Upanishad: Satyam vada, Dharam chara, Matri devo bhava, Pitri devo bhava, Atithi devo bhava (Speak the truth, Practice dharma, Treat your mother, father and guest as Lord).

Chandogya Upanishad: The significance of OM syllable is discussed-the chant of OM is the essence of all. Ashrama (stages of life) system is mentioned. The story of satyakaram, the son of Jabala is mentioned.

Katha Upanishad: 'Rise, awake! Having obtained these boons', understand them!' This slogan was adopted by Swami Vivekanand for his Ramakrishna Mission.Conversation between father Vajasravasa and son Nachiketa.

Brihad aranyaka Upanishad: Longest of all upanishads.

Popular Verses: Aham brahmasmi, asato ma sadgamaya..., om shantih, shantih shantih'.stories of King Janaka of Mithila and dialogues between sage Yajnavalkya and two learned dies, Gargi and Maitreyi.

Mundaka Upanishad: Satyameva Jayate mentioned.

Smriti Literature

Vedangas and Sutra literature:There are six Vedangas: Shiksha(Phonetics), Kalpa(Rituals),Vyakaran(Grammer),Nirukta(Etimology),Chhandas(metrics) and Jyotish(Astronomy).

In contrast to the Vedic literature which is considerd as shruti or divine revelation, The Vedangas are called Smriti or literature handed down by tradition because they are of human origin. The Vedangas are written in the form of sutras (literally thread), i.e., condensed prose style intended for memorization. The sutra literature helps us in the study of the Vedic literature. Of all the sutra texts, only Kalpa Sutras have come down to us, and these are again divided into three classes: Srauta Sutras, Grihya Sutras and Dharma Sutras. The Srauta Sutra deals with the rituals of the great sacrifices of Agni, Soma and animal; the Grihya Sutra deals with the domestic ceremonies and sacrifices to be per- formed by the householder; and the Dharma Sutra is concerned with the laws, manners and customs of people in general. It is the Dharma Sutra with which the historians are mainly concerned, for it constitutes the foundation of the Dharmashastras such as the Laws of Manu. Attached to the Srauta Sutras are the Sulva Sutras, the oldest books on Indian geometry containing instructions for the measurement and construction of the complex Vedic fire altars and the laying out of the sacrificial area.

The Ramayana and Mahabharata:These twin-epics in Sanskrit are considered 'itihaas' (traditional history) as well as smriti. Cultural milieu of both appears to be almost the same, partly because of similarities in language and styles found in these texts, and partly because of stray references of each other's stories and places used in these texts. Reference of Valmiki and Ramayana is found in Ramopakhyana section of Mahabharata and mention of sites of Mahabharata such as Kurus, Hastinapur, is found in Ramaya- na. The composition of the Ramayana can be placed between 500 BCE and 300 CE and Mahabharata between 400 BCE and 400 CE.Ramayana's original authorship is attributed to Valmiki. It received its pres- ent form two or three centuries later, but there are a number of different versions which exist today. Out of its seven books (kandas), the first and last are the latest. The former states that Rama is an incarnation of Vishnu, an indication of its later composition, but many of the stories are very old and include some which proba- bly originated in the kingdoms of Magadha and Kosala.

Originally known as Jaya Samhita, the Mahabharata includes the Harivamsa (the genealogy of Hari or Vishnu) and the Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord). Tradition- ally it is attributed to Krishna Dwaipayana, also known as Maharashi Veda Vyasa. The Gita represents the views of Krishna Devakiputra who declared that righteous conduct is more efficacious than gifts made to a priestly sacrificer.

Whether the great battle between the Pandavas and Kauravas described in the Mahabharata ever happened cannot be proved or disproved. There may be a possibility that there was a relatively small-scale battle, transformed into a gigan- tic epic war by bards and poets. The text consists of 18 books or sections (parvans). The Harivamsa forms an appendix to the Mahabharata and consists of three parts which give an account of creation, a genealogical list of the Yadavas, myths, the adventures and love affairs of Krishna and the cowherd girls.

These epics may be used as historical sources, though with cautions. Tradition- ally, Rama lived in the treta yuga and the Mahabharata war happened later, in the dvapara yuga. But, some scholars argue that the activities and episodes associated with the Mahabharata reflect a slightly earlier period than those of the Ramayana because of different geographical settings of the epics. The events of Mahabharata takes place in Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga valley, while the centre of activities in Ramayana appears to be shifted eastward, to the middle Ganga valley.

Puranas: These are a genre of ancient texts that contain myths, legends, cosmology, and genealogies of gods, sages, and heroes. The Puranas contribute to the religious and cultural understanding of various Hindu deities.

Historical Importance of Puranas

    1.Vayu, Brahmanda, Harivamsa, Matsya, Vishnu and Brahma puranas provide           historical information about dynasties of ancient India.

    2. The descriptions of Haryanka, Shisunaga, Nanda, Maurya, Shunga, Kanva and Andhra dynasties are found in these puranas.

 

     3. Most of the puranas are compiled between 4th to 6th centuries (Gupta Period).

     4. The genealogies of kings are mentioned.

     5. Some of puranic myths such as encounters and interactions between asuras, devas and sages may be interpreted as interactions among people of different cultures.

     6. Information in puranas reflect comingling of Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical culture traditions. • Account of mountains, rivers and places are useful for studying historical geography of ancient India.

    7.Helps in understanding the development of cults and cultic practices based on the worship of Vish- nu, Shiva and Shakti.

Traditionally The Puranas expound Five subjects (Panchlakshana):

    1. The creation of world-Sarga

    2. Its destruction and recreation- Pratisarga

    3. Genealogy of gods and patriarchs- Vamsa

    4. Reigns of manus of various world periods- Manuantaras

    5.Histoy of the Solar and Lunar royal dynasties- Vamsa charitra

Buddhist literature: Buddhist literature is classified into canonical and non-canonical texts. The canonical texts lay down certain basic tenets of Buddhism. The Pali canon of Buddhist sacred literature may be divided into two great classes-the Hinayana canon written chiefly in Pali, and hence spoken of as the Pali canon; and the Mahayana canon written chiefly in Sanskrit and widely translated into Chinese, Japanese, Tibetan and other Mongolian languages. The Pali canonical books consist of three parts collectively known as the Tripitakas (the three baskets) which were reduced to writing between 350 BCE and 90 BCE. The first one, Vinaya Pitaka: The Vinaya Pitaka is one of the three parts that make up the Tripitakas. Its primary subject matter is the monastic.

 

The Vinaya has three divisions:

 

1.Sutta-vibhangha (Divisions of Rules)

2.Khandhaka (Sections)

3.Parivara (Accessary),  a short summary of the rules and how to apply them.

The second one Sutta Pitaka: (300 BCE) consists of five nikaya or collections of aphorisms, precepts and discourses for the laity. They are mentioned as follows.

  1. Digha nikaya, a collection of long sermons and an account of Buddha's last speeches and his death and the funeral ceremonies;

  2. Majjima nikaya, a collection dealing with the relation of Buddha to the Jainas and others, various forms of asceticism, and a long enumeration of offences and the punishments;

  3. Samyutta nikaya discusses Buddhist doctrine and many sayings of Buddha

  4. Anguttara nikaya, a collection of sermons arranged in ascending numerical order, enumerating doctrines and principles;

  5. Khuddaka nikaya comprises 15 books of miscellanea which are essential for an understanding of Buddhism. The important ones are:

      a.) The Jatakas comprises stories of Buddha's former lives, which are among   the most ancient fables in the world of literature.

      b.) The Theragatha and the Therigatha, the Songs of the Male and Lady El- ders, containing religious lyrical poetry of a high order.

      c.)The other important books under Khuddaka nikaya are: Khuddaka Path, Dharamapada, Udana, Ittivuttan, Suttanipata, Vimanavathu, etc.

The third one Abhidhamma Pitaka : deals with the same subjects as the Sutta Pitaka, but in a more scholastic manner.It consists of supplementary philosophical dissertations and expositions of the finer points of mind training, psychology and dogma. Of its seven books, the Dhammasangani provides a good exposition of Buddhist philosophy, psychology and ethics. The Kathavat- thu (or Vinnanapada), ascribed to Moggaliputta Tissa, is valuable for the light it throws on the evolution of Buddhist dogma.

Jaina Literature

Use of Prakrit

The Jainas utilized the prevailing spoken languages of different times at different places in the country for their religious propaganda and the preservation of sa- cred knowledge. They even gave a literary shape to some vernaculars for the first time. Mahavira himself preached in the mixed dialect called Ardha-Magadhi so that people speaking Magadhi or Suraseni might understand him thoroughly. His teachings that were classified into 12 books called Srutangas are written in the Ar- dha-Magadhi language.

Shvetambara Literature

The sacred literature of the Shvetambaras is written in the Arsha or Ardha-Magadhi form of Prakrit, and may be classified into 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakirnas, 6 Chheda sutras, 4 Mulasutras and 2 miscellaneous texts. The Jainas themselves do not claim that these texts are the authentic productions of the founder of Jainism, but maintain that the 12 Limbs were codified some 200 years after Mahavira's death, while the whole canon did not receive its definitive form until the fifth century CE, when it was finally established at a council held at Valabhi in Saurashtra.

Angas

    1.The Acharangasutra deals with the rules of conduct which a Jaina monk was to follow.

    2.The Sutrakritanga is mainly devoted to a refutation of the heretic doc- trines.   

    3.The Sthananga and Samavayamga present the Jaina doctrines in an ascending numerical series.

    4. The Bhagavati sutra is one of the most important Jaina canonical texts. It contains a comprehensive exposition of the Jaina doctrine, and gives a vivid description of the joys of heaven and the tortures of hell.

 

    5.The Inatadharmak-athah teaches the main principles of the Jaina doctrine by means of parables, legends and stories.

    6.The Upasakadasah narrates the story of ten rich merchants who were converted to Jaina faith.

    7. The Antakriddash and Anuttaraupapatika-dasah contain stories of Jaina as- cetics who saved their souls by following a course of rigorous self-torture, leading to death.

    8. The Prasnavyakaranani is a dogmatic treatise dealing with the ten precepts, ten prohibitions, etc.

    9. The Vipakasrutam contains legends illustrating the consequences, after death, of good and bad deeds of a man done in this life.

   10. The Drishti Vada contains miscellaneous doctrines of a varied character.

Upangas

They possess very little literary interest, as their contents are mostly dogmatic and mythological in character.

      1.The second Upanga, Rayapasenaijja is, however, of some literary merit, and contains a dialogue between the Jaina monk Kesi and a king, Paesi (probably Prasenajit of Kosala).

      2. The fifth, sixth, and seventh Upangas deal with astronomy, geography, cosmology, etc.

      3.The eighth Upanga, Nirayavalisuttam contains an interesting account of Ajatasatru, but its historical authenticity is doubtful.

 

Guru Granth Sahib: The central religious scripture of Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib is a collection of hymns and teachings from Sikh Gurus and other saints. It emphasizes devotion, equality, and service.

Tirukkural: Authored by the Tamil poet Thiruvalluvar, the Tirukkural is a classic Tamil text that covers ethical and moral principles, guiding individuals on how to lead a righteous life.

Sufi Poetry: India has been home to various Sufi saints who composed spiritual poetry that emphasizes love, devotion, and the mystical journey to God. Prominent Sufi poets include Rumi, Kabir, and Bulleh Shah.

These are just a few examples of the rich religious literature found in India. The country's cultural and spiritual diversity has given rise to a wide range of religious texts that continue to influence people's lives and beliefs.